Geographical location and climate

The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve was officially designated in 1988 to conserve valuable Himalayan flora and fauna. Geographically, NDBR is situated between 79°40′ and 80°5′E longitude and 30°17′ and 30°41′N latitude (Figure 1). It spreads over an area of 2236.74 km² across three districts—Chamoli, Almora, and Pithoragarh—in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northwestern India. The reserve has 2 distinct zones: an inner core zone of 625.42 km² and, encircling this, an outer buffer zone of 1611.12 km². The Indian government already designated the core zone of NDBR as Nanda Devi National Park in 1982. The core zone is surrounded by a series of high mountain peaks. The reserve was named after the Nanda Devi west peak (7817 m), located within the core zone.

The entire area is characterized by distinctive microclimates. The annual approximate variation in precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm, while the temperature varies from below 0°C (December-January) to 35°C (June-July) (Silori and Badola 1999). The rainfall gradient decreases from south to north; therefore, the northern valleys of the Dhauli Ganga and Girthi Ganga rivers are comparatively dry, characterized by a trans-Himalayan climate with stunted and sparse scrub vegetation. The upper portion of the reserve (at elevations above 4500 m) remains snow covered throughout the year. Thus, about 81% of the core zone and 60% of the buffer zone remain snow covered throughout the year (Sahai and Kimothi 1996).

Biological diversity

Great altitudinal variation (1800–7817 m) and the varied topography of the area support a vast range of biological diversity in the entire biosphere reserve. Due to rich biological and cultural diversity, NDBR was also declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988. According to a remote sensing study by Sahai and Kimothi (1996), 66% of the total area of the NDBR is snow bound or covered by glaciers throughout the year. The vegetative cover of the reserve spreads over 22.2% of its total area; 6.6% is wasteland and 4.5% is grasslands or alpine pastures, known locally as bugyal. Only 0.7% of the NDBR is developed or under agriculture. Of the total forest cover, about 47% is dense forests (>40% crown cover), 35% open (10–40% crown cover), and 18% miscellaneous and degraded forests (<10% crown cover). So far, a total of 793 plant species have been recorded in the entire biosphere reserve (Hajra and Balodi 1995). The major forest types at the lower altitudes (between 1800 and 3000 m) are Himalayan moist/dry temperate forest with oak (Quercus semecarpifolia), deodar (Cedrus deodara), blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), and other cofniferous species. Above 3000 m, along the altitudinal gradient, the tree vegetation comprised of subalpine and alpine forest types is dominated by firs (Abies pindrow) and junipers (Juniperus communis), while birch (Betula utilis) in association with rhododendron (Rhododendron campanulatum) forms the timber line around 3600–3800 m (Champion and Seth 1968). The shrub species Prinsepia utilis, Berberis aristata, Rosa macrophylla, and Rosa webbiana dominate the understorey vegetation. In alpine meadows above the timberline (Figure 2), which remain snow free for about 4–5 months of the year (June–October), varieties of flowering plants of species such as Primula, Potentilla¸ Anemone, Geranium, Pedicularis, and Saussarea abound.

The entire reserve is a storehouse for several ethnobotanical species, including medicinal plants. Silori and Badola (1999) have listed a total of 101 species of plants found in the entire buffer zone of NDBR that are used by the villagers for various purposes. These include fibers used as a source of food or medicine, agricultural implements, timber, firewood, and herbs that have religious significance. Of these, the local people use 27 species as medicinal herbs.

Sociocultural milieu

There is a high level of ethnic diversity throughout the Nanda Devi region. Human habitation is limited in the 19 villages in the buffer zone (Figure 1). The Bhotiya, a tribal community, dominate the human population. Traditionally, the cross-border trade with Tibet was the main source of income for the Bhotiya before it was banned in 1962 after the Indo-Chinese war. Adventure tourism to Nanda Devi peak emerged as a popular alternative source of income for the villagers, especially those residing in the part of Chamoli District in the buffer zone. But in view of the potential loss of biodiversity due to lack of control over this form of tourism, it was banned by governmental decision in 1982. The consecutive loss of major sources of income forced the Bhotiya to look for alternatives. Recently, rearing sheep and goats, practicing agriculture on marginal lands, and the production and sale of woolen articles have been major occupations among the Bhotiya.

Socioeconomic features of the villages surveyed

All 5 villages are located in remote valleys at altitudes above 3000 m (Table 1). The villages are inhabited by the Johari, a subgroup of the Bhotiya community; therefore, the entire valley of the Gori Ganga River is also known as the Johar Valley. All the villages are accessible after a tough hilly trek of at least 35 km and up to a maximum of 55 km, from motorable roads across and along the contours at high altitudes.

The Bhotiya practice seasonal migration, moving to the lower altitudes outside the buffer zone during the severe winter months (November-April), while they spend the summer months (May-October) inside the buffer zone. However, over the decades, migration has undergone major transformation. The number of migrating families has declined every year ever since the ban on cross-border trade was imposed (Prasad 1989). Migrants are generally the older people in the families; the younger members stay back to continue their schooling or jobs in the lower plains. As a result, the average size of the migrant family recorded was approximately 2 people. Historically, Milam village, with more than 600 families, used to be the largest center in the cross-border trade. But during the survey, we enumerated only 18 families from this village. The lack of alternative employment opportunities following the ban forced the people to migrate to the lower plains, a common phenomenon throughout the Himalayan region (Farooquee 1994; Hoon 1996).

Of the 71 families surveyed in the villages, 69% owned a livestock population totaling 2520 head (Table 1). Of this, 66% were sheep, 27% goats, and 4% cattle, while the remaining 3% were mules used for carrying loads during seasonal migration. On average, each family owned between 12 and 62 head of livestock. Ninety-seven percent of the families were landowners. Of these, 81% were marginal farmers with 1 ha of land, 18% were small farmers with 2 ha of land, and the remaining 1% were small- to medium-scale farmers with 2–4 ha of agricultural land. Of the total agricultural area, according to government records (123.87 ha), only 12% was recorded under cultivation during the household survey. This is due to the declining number of migrating families, which results in most of the area remaining uncultivated. Besides medicinal herbs, traditional crops (some introduced in the early 19th century) such as oagal (Fagopyrum esculentum) and phaphar (Fagopyrum tartaricum)—two species of buckwheat—uwa or barley (Hordeum vulgare), amaranth (Amaranthus frumentaceous), rajma, or kidney beans (Phaseolus spp), and potato (Solanum tuberosum) are also grown.

The study showed that the following areas were the major sources of overall income: agricultural produce (3–21%), medicinal herbs (5–10%), woolen products (24–53%), and the sale of sheep and goats (35–60%) (Table 2). The overall income from sheep and goats ranged between 72 and 89%, indicating the role of these animals in the economy of the villages surveyed.

Cultivation practices to produce medicinal plants

The cultivation of medicinal plants is in fact not a new practice in the villages studied. The Bhotiya have been known to cultivate Jambu and Pharan since these plants have been traded throughout the Himalayan region for centuries (Atkinson 1882). They are propagated through bulbs and their leaves are harvested twice a year, during June-July and September-October. However, the commercial cultivation of medicinal herbs in the villages studied is a relatively recent development that began about 5 years ago.

Of the 71 families surveyed in the villages, 90% cultivate medicinal plants on their agricultural fields, on fallow land, and in kitchen gardens (Figure 3). In some of the villages, we found that the area surrounding abandoned houses was also used for cultivation of medicinal plants. Of the total reported cultivated area in all 5 villages (15.29 ha), 78% was under medicinal plant farming, while the remaining area was under traditional crops. During the household survey and field observations, it was recorded that villagers cultivated a total of 12 species of medicinal plants (Table 3). Of these, one was rare (Allium wallichii) and one endangered (Saussurea costus), while two others (Nardostachys grandiflora and Picrorhiza kurrooa) are listed as vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Indian Plants (Nair and Sastry 1990). The roots of 8 species are used for medicinal purposes; therefore, the fresh roots of these species are dug up at the end of every season (October) while the old roots are left for propagation. The maximum productivity per unit area was recorded for Gandrayan or Angelica glauca (593/kg/ha/y), while the minimum was recorded for Pharan or Allium carolinianum (79/kg/ha/y) (Table 4).

Marketing of medicinal plants

At the time of the study, of the 12 cultivated species, 6 were being marketed by the villages surveyed while the remaining 6 were still under nursery plantation to prepare seeds, rhizomes, or bulbs for propagation. Of the total cultivated area under medicinal herbs (11.93 ha), Jambu (Allium wallichii) and Pharan (Allium carolinianum) together occupied about 35%, while Kala Jeera (Carum carvi, 18%), Gandrayan (Angelica glauca, 15%), and Koot (Saussurea costus, 11%) were other important species (Table 4). The Bhotiya sell these herbs or exchange them for grains and other spices at the lower altitudes in the foothills of the Himalayas.

The marketing of medicinal herbs by the villagers is generally done through middlemen, who visit these villages at harvest time (September–October). The prices of medicinal herbs fluctuated between Rs.30 and Rs.600 per kg during the study period (1996). It was calculated that, on average, a family earns about Rs.2423 ± 376.95 per season from the sale of medicinal herbs. The range of total earnings per family varied from Rs.200 to Rs.23,000 during 1996. The great variation in earnings from the sale of medicinal herbs is mainly due to variation in the area under cultivation and also to the type of species grown. Based on the average productivity of medicinal herbs in the study villages and on their prices, we estimated that one family could earn between Rs.4362 and Rs86,500 from 1 ha of agricultural land per season, depending on the choice of the medicinal herb to be cultivated (Table 4). Compared with traditional cash crops, such as potato, rajma (beans), and amaranth, the income from medicinal plants is quite high. The selling price of these traditional cash crops at the time of the survey in the villages studied was recorded as Rs.4, Rs18, and Rs.11 per kg, respectively, for potato, rajma, and amaranth, which is much lower than the lowest selling price of medicinal plants.